More recently the organization has initiated multiple action research projects to discover and promote pathways for creating climate just cities across India

By Sandeep Chachra, Executive Director, Actionaid Association

Introduction

We live in an urban century. In 2007, the number of people across the world living in cities moved beyond the halfway mark, and current projections are that by 2050, more than two-thirds will reside in urban areas. (UN-Habitat, 2008) While urbanization is one of the hallmarks of the Anthropocene, another critical aspect of this era is the climate crisis. Given that climate change has been caused by excessive emission of greenhouse gases (GHG), primarily carbon dioxide, from human activities since the industrial revolution and that the current form of urbanization is both a means and an end of a development pattern based on fossil fuels and GHG emissions, the climate crisis and the current pattern of urbanization are interconnected.

According to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), cities across the globe are responsible for consuming more than two-thirds of the world’s energy and generating more than 70 percent of all carbon dioxide emissions. (UNFCCC, 2020) No wonder António Guterres, the United Nations secretary-general, stated in 2019 that the fight against climate change would essentially be won or lost in cities. (Guterres, 2019).

While cities of the Global South have contributed the least to causing the climate crisis, they are more vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change due to their existing socio-economic challenges. The increasing intensity, duration, and frequency of extreme weather events, such as floods, storms, heat and cold waves, and slow onset events such as rising sea levels, disproportionately affect these cities and, most especially, the marginalized groups within them. Population groups already facing precarity due to socio-economic status, livelihood, gender, age, indigenous/minority status, or disability find climate change is increasing the precarities they face in these cities.

Given that 90 percent of the projected urban population increase between 2018 and 2050 is to be concentrated in the Global South (UNDESA, 2014), especially in Asia and Africa, conversations regarding urbanization and inadequate civic services, equitable access, urban expansion, pollution, and environmental degradation accompany the debates on climate resilience in these cities. Rapid urban expansion leads to informal settlements lacking proper infrastructure and services, increasing vulnerability. Poverty, inequality, and limited resources hinder effective climate adaptation and response measures, impacting marginalized communities disproportionately.

This essay explores how climate change affects cities in the Global South and how we should address these effects. We have divided the essay into four parts. We begin with a short note on how the current pattern of urbanization evolved in the Global North and its social, economic, and ecological consequences. In the second part, we draw out the context of cities in the Global South and how they differ regarding resource scarcity, infrastructure, urban planning, and populations to be served. The third part deals with how climate change impacts cities in the Global South and their populations. The fourth part deals with how future urbanization should look to ensure that cities of the Global South do not follow the over-extractive, over-polluting, and over-exploitative urbanization pattern of the Global North.

The unsustainable model of urbanization in the Global North

It is important to understand that the urbanization patterns of the Global North, often held up as the only available and aspirational future for the Global South, are neither possible nor desirable. The enclosure movement, industrial revolution, and settler colonialism powered urban transitions in eighteenth-century Europe. Consolidating common lands into individually owned plots rendered many rural workers redundant in the countryside, and they migrated to cities to serve the demand for unskilled labour caused by the rapid growth of industries. While the cities became engines of economic growth, working and living conditions for workers in the cities remained harsh. Factory workers endured long hours, typically 12–16 hours a day, with minimal breaks and low wages. Workplaces were often unsafe, lacking proper ventilation and safety measures, leading to frequent accidents and health issues. Child labour was common, and social support systems were minimal, contributing to widespread poverty and hardship. Workers most often lived in overcrowded and unsanitary conditions. Housing was typically cramped and poorly constructed, with multiple families frequently sharing small rooms or even single beds. Sanitation facilities were inadequate, leading to widespread problems with waste disposal and disease. Many workers lived in slums or tenement buildings, lacking access to clean water, sanitation, and adequate ventilation. These poor living conditions contributed to high mortality rates and a lower quality of life for urban workers during this period. The impoverished rural populations were not all absorbed by cities; through state-supported settler colonialism, European populations displaced indigenous peoples across the Americas, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa.

A second wave of rural depopulation spread across the Global North in the mid-twentieth century with the mechanization of agriculture. The long period of growth seen after World War II, characterized by technological progress, rising living standards, and relative political stability, also saw a surge in urbanization across the Global North. This “long boom” ended with the oil crisis of the mid-1970s but laid the foundation for modern economic systems and the pattern of urbanization. It also significantly improved quality of life for many people in the Global North.

However, the ecological consequences of this urbanization process are still being understood as the world grapples with the climate crisis. World Bank reports suggest that cities in high- and upper-middle-income countries are the least green globally regarding CO2 emissions. In contrast, cities in lower-income countries barely contribute to global emissions. In 2015, the towns in high- and upper-middle-income countries together accounted for nearly 86 percent of all global urban CO2 emissions. (Mukim, 2023) On the other hand, cities in lower-middle-income countries contributed almost 13 percent, and cities in low-income countries contributed less than 0.2 percent. Yet in a strict ecological sense, according to the World Bank, even if cities in low- and lower-middle-income countries follow current urbanization trends, by 2050, global GHG emissions will be 4.2 times the level required to keep temperatures below 1.5 degrees, even if all cities in high- and upper-middle-income countries achieve net-zero.

With neoliberal development leading to jobless and “job-loss” growth, market-led city economies cannot provide migrant populations with decent jobs, and immigration and refugee flows are being prevented most vigorously by the Global North. In any case, the Global North’s pattern of urbanization would lead us to an ecological and environmental disaster.

Contextualizing climate change in cities of the Global South

The context of cities in the Global South differs significantly from that of cities in the Global North. The historical moments ushering in urbanization differed in the North and South, as modern urban growth across the Global South started with liberation from colonial rule and occurred in a context where international trade terms favoured the Global North. The difference is manifested across various dimensions, including urban planning, infrastructure development, population dynamics, resource management, governance, socio-economic conditions, and cultural diversity. Understanding these differences is essential for designing context-specific strategies, policies, and interventions to address the unique challenges and opportunities facing these cities.

Resource scarcity is a critical issue in cities of the Global South, whose histories are rooted in colonial and neocolonial systems. During the colonial era, European powers exploited natural resources such as minerals, timber, and agricultural products from colonies in the Global South, often without regard for sustainable management practices. This exploitation depleted resources and disrupted local ecosystems and traditional livelihoods. Land policies implemented by colonial powers favoured large-scale landownership by settlers, local landlords, or corporations, leading to land grabbing, displacement of indigenous communities, and land degradation. The legacy of these practices continues to impact land access and resource availability in postcolonial cities.

Colonial rulers designed infrastructure projects to facilitate resource extraction, transportation, and export-oriented industries, neglecting investments in social infrastructure and environmental sustainability. Neocolonial economic policies, including unequal trade relations, debt burdens, and structural adjustment programs, perpetuate economic dependency and hinder resource management efforts in the Global South. The rapid urbanization witnessed in postcolonial cities, driven by rural-to-urban migration, population growth, and economic activities, exacerbates resource scarcity challenges.

There is also a vast difference in the budgets of city governments in the South and the North. For example, the per-capita budget of New York City in the United States is 164 times larger than that of Bengaluru in India, even though both have equivalent population levels. Building infrastructure and providing services for exponentially growing populations is a daunting challenge, but ensuring low-carbon, resilient, and sustainable growth is even more difficult, especially on a small budget. This is precisely the dilemma that rapidly growing cities in the Global South face. Furthermore, smaller and mid-sized cities with populations of 1 to 5 million people, not the dominant metropolitan areas that typically have more capacity and receive more resources from national governments and external funding agencies, will see the bulk of urban growth in the future.

Infrastructure development in these cities faces constraints due to limited financial resources. Basic infrastructure like roads, water supply, sanitation, and waste management systems are often inadequate or poorly maintained, leading to service deficiencies, traffic congestion, pollution, and public health risks. Moreover, rapid population growth puts immense pressure on housing, transportation, healthcare, education, and employment opportunities, leading to overcrowding, informal sector dominance, and social inequalities. Access to essential services may be limited, particularly in informal settlements and marginalized communities, exacerbating socio-economic disparities.

The rapid urbanization in these cities is driven by rural-to-urban migration, economic opportunities, and natural population growth, leading to issues such as informal settlements, inadequate infrastructure, and social inequalities. Informal settlements are a prominent feature of many cities in the Global South, due to the rapid influx of rural migrants seeking better economic prospects. These settlements lack proper land tenure, infrastructure, and essential services, resulting in overcrowding, poor sanitation, and environmental degradation.

Access to essential services such as healthcare, education, clean water, sanitation, and reliable electricity is a significant issue for deprived urban communities. Economic vulnerabilities are a vital concern, as majorities of urban populations in the Global South engage in informal employment with low wages and precarious livelihoods. They lack social protection mechanisms, leaving them vulnerable to income fluctuations, job insecurity, and economic shocks. Health and well-being are significant concerns, as poor living conditions, limited access to healthcare, and environmental hazards contribute to health disparities, infectious diseases, malnutrition, and mental health issues among deprived urban communities.

Climate change amplifies existing vulnerabilities in Global South cities by increasing the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events like floods, storms, and heatwaves. Rising sea levels threaten coastal cities, while water scarcity and heat stress affect urban populations. Climate-related impacts disrupt food security, health, infrastructure, and livelihoods, disproportionately impacting vulnerable communities and exacerbating social inequities. Climate-induced displacement and migration strain urban resources and services.

Impacts of climate change on cities of the Global South

Urban development contributes to and is impacted by climate change in ways that make cities particularly vulnerable to climate change due to a combination of factors. One of the primary consequences of urbanization is increased energy demand, which, when realized through fossil fuel sources, causes greenhouse gases emissions that contribute to the warming of the planet and the disruption of climate patterns. Additionally, urban growth often involves deforestation and land use change. Natural habitats like forests, wetlands, and grasslands are cleared for urban infrastructure, residential areas, and agricultural expansion.

This process of urbanization itself makes cities vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. Urban development alters surface characteristics by replacing vegetation with impervious surfaces like asphalt, concrete, and buildings. This modification leads to the “urban heat island” effect, where cities experience higher temperatures than surrounding rural areas. Heat islands exacerbate heatwaves and energy demand for cooling, contributing to local shifts in weather patterns. This has profound implications for public health in cities of the Global South. Rising temperatures accompanied by heatwaves contribute to various heat-related illnesses and exacerbate heat stress and thermal discomfort for urban residents, especially in informal settlements with limited access to cooling systems or shade.

Moreover, urban growth strains water resources through increased demand for drinking water, irrigation, and industrial use. Water extraction, damming, and diversion can disrupt natural hydrological cycles, leading to water stress, depletion of aquifers, and reduced water availability for ecosystems and communities. Reduced precipitation, changing rainfall patterns, and increased evaporation rates due to higher temperatures significantly affect water availability, agriculture, and freshwater ecosystems in these cities. Cities in arid and semi-arid regions, such as Cape Town, São Paulo, and Bengaluru, are experiencing water scarcity and droughts exacerbated by climate change. In addition, impermeable surfaces and reduced green spaces lead to storm-water runoff, water pollution, and flooding risks.

However, not all cities are the same; geographic location can pose additional challenges due to climate-related disasters. For example, many of the cities in the Global South are located in coastal areas, making them susceptible to sea-level rise, coastal erosion, and increased frequency of extreme weather events such as cyclones and storm surges. Cities like Mumbai, Dhaka, and Lagos face the dual threat of rising sea levels and intense rainfall, leading to flooding, infrastructure damage, and displacement of communities. Marginalized communities living in low-lying areas, often in informal settlements, slums, or areas with inadequate infrastructure and housing, are at increased vulnerability. Moreover, communities dependent on the coastal economy in the form of fishing, aquaculture, or tourism face threats to their livelihood.

Similarly, mountain cities, especially those in the Himalayan region, like Kathmandu, Shimla, and Srinagar, face differential impacts due to their geographic location. Climate change is causing glaciers in the Himalayas to retreat, leading to reduced snowpack, glacial meltwater, and freshwater availability. Erratic rainfall, reduced snowmelt, and altered river flows affect irrigation systems and crop yields, impacting agricultural practices, food security, and livelihoods. Moreover, changes in precipitation patterns, temperature, and permafrost thawing increase the frequency, intensity, and unpredictability of landslides, avalanches, cloudbursts, and flash-floods. Cities and settlements in mountainous areas face risks to infrastructure, housing, transportation, and lives from these natural disasters.

Climate change’s economic impacts are significant for Global South cities, affecting livelihoods, industries, and local economies. Agriculture-dependent cities and regions experience crop failures, reduced yields, and food insecurity due to changing weather patterns, water scarcity, and pest outbreaks linked to climate change. This, in turn, affects food prices, market stability, and rural-urban migration patterns, putting pressure on urban areas to accommodate growing populations.

While the effects of climate change differ from city to city, they also vary among different populations living in urban areas. Climate vulnerabilities can be compounded by vulnerabilities due to age, gender, class, caste, race, and ethnicity. Climate change disproportionately affects marginalized and vulnerable communities within cities of the Global South. Low-income households, informal workers, indigenous populations, women, children, and elderly individuals are often the hardest hit by climate-related disasters and environmental degradation. These communities face multiple challenges exacerbated by climate change, including limited access to clean water, food insecurity, health risks, and inadequate shelter.

For example, urban informal workers, including street vendors, waste pickers, domestic workers, construction workers, and informal transport operators, are particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change due to their precarious livelihoods and lack of social protection. Climate change exacerbates existing challenges faced by these workers and creates new threats to their well-being and economic stability. One of the key ways in which urban informal workers are affected by climate change is through extreme weather events. Floods, storms, heatwaves, and droughts can disrupt their work activities, damage their makeshift workplaces or equipment, and lead to income losses. For example, street vendors struggle to sell their goods during heavy rainfall or extreme heat, waste pickers face difficulties in sorting and collecting waste in flooded areas, and informal transport operators experience disruptions in services due to damaged roads or infrastructure.

People of different genders respond differently to climate-change-induced events exacerbated by social dynamics. Women play a critical role in natural resources management within their households. In low- and middle-income countries, eight in ten women collect the water for their household. Women are responsible for over 70 percent of water-related chores and management globally. Women are adversely affected as the time and distance travelled to collect water increases, and they are concerned about the health consequences for themselves and their children. Their social position makes women inherently sensitive to food insecurity, resulting in nutrient deficiencies, especially of micronutrients, further causing cognitive impairment, poor attention span, diminished working memory, and impaired sensory perception. With food insecurity on the rise due to climate change, women will bear the higher costs.

Climate change affects children in various ways, impacting their health, well-being, education, and prospects. Heatwaves, extreme temperatures, and heat-related illnesses can pose immediate health threats, especially for young children who are more vulnerable to heat stress. Children are particularly susceptible to vector-borne diseases, and climate change can expand the distribution, prevalence, and seasonality of vector-borne diseases such as malaria, dengue fever, Zika virus, and Lyme disease, increasing exposure risks. Moreover, school closures due to extreme weather events, infrastructure damage, displacement of families, and economic hardships can interrupt learning opportunities and educational attainment. Children in marginalized communities, especially girls, are disproportionately affected by education disruptions caused by climate change impacts. Studies have documented an increase in cases of child labour and child marriages in the aftermath of climate-related extreme weather events and disasters.

Similarly, elderly populations are more susceptible to heat-related illnesses and heat stress due to age-related physiological changes, chronic health conditions, and decreased body temperature regulation. Heatwaves, exacerbated by climate change, can lead to heat exhaustion, heat-stroke, dehydration, cardiovascular problems, and respiratory complications among older people, particularly those living in urban areas with limited access to cooling resources. Moreover, relocation, displacement, loss of social networks, and changes in living conditions can contribute to feelings of anxiety, depression, loneliness, and social isolation among elderly individuals, particularly those living alone or in care facilities.

Climate change can also worsen environmental pollution and health hazards, disproportionately impacting informal workers who often work in hazardous conditions without adequate protective measures. Air pollution from increased vehicular traffic or industrial activities can exacerbate respiratory illnesses among urban informal workers. Heatwaves and extreme temperatures can also pose health risks for outdoor workers, leading to heat-related illnesses and exhaustion. However, policies aimed at reducing the adverse effects of environmental pollution often negatively impact marginalized communities. For example, Delhi’s wintertime ban on construction activities for the past few years, meant to combat the deadly smog that engulfs the city, is impacting the livelihood of thousands of construction workers.

Informal settlements or slums, prevalent in many Global South cities, often lack adequate housing, sanitation, and drainage systems, making them highly vulnerable to climate-related hazards. During extreme weather events such as floods and storms, these informal settlements are particularly at risk due to their location in low-lying areas, inadequate construction, and limited access to evacuation routes and emergency services. The lack of infrastructure resilience exacerbates climate change’s impacts, leading to loss of lives, property damage, disruption of essential services, and long-term recovery challenges.

Additionally, climate-related disasters can lead to displacement, loss of assets, and increased competition for scarce resources, further marginalizing informal workers and undermining their resilience. Lack of access to social safety nets, healthcare, and legal protections exacerbates their vulnerability and limits their ability to cope with climate-related shocks and stressors.

Towards socially and ecologically just urbanization

The costs of ecological distress and climate change are initially and disproportionately borne by those lowest in class, caste, and gender hierarchies. It is on these shoulders that the burden of climate action also falls. Climate justice requires us to take an intersectional approach to the climate crisis. Poverty compounds the effects of historically rooted sources of social marginalization (age, gender, caste and class exclusion, and cultural and religious othering), making marginalized communities more vulnerable to climate change impacts. Climate risks and the adaptive capacities of a social group depend on a combination of that group’s socio-economic composition and the spatial distribution of the climate hazard. Social justice should not remain an add-on to climate action, but should be a central component of any climate adaptation design.

Pursuing a socially and ecologically just urban transition is paramount in contemporary urban planning and development discourse. A just transition transforms cities into more equitable, inclusive, and sustainable spaces for all residents, especially as urbanization accelerates worldwide. Cities must adopt a comprehensive set of strategies and principles that address the interconnected challenges of social inequality, environmental degradation, and economic resilience.

At the heart of a just urban transition lies the principle of social equity. Cities must prioritize the needs and rights of marginalized communities, ensuring equitable access to resources, services, and opportunities regardless of class, caste, ethnicity, gender, or age. This involves addressing social housing, access to public education and healthcare, decent work and livelihoods, and social protections for vulnerable populations.

Housing equity and justice are of utmost importance when addressing social inequity in cities. Informal workers dependent on petty trade and casual labour do not enjoy proper housing conditions and other essential amenities. One of the main issues with informal settlements is the lack of land tenure or rights for the inhabitants of the slums. Therefore, it becomes imperative that slum dwellers be provided with land tenure to enable them to invest in climate-resilient housing infrastructure and protect them from climate hazards and displacement. In recent years, more than 100,000 slum-dwelling households in the southern Indian state of Karnataka have been given land titles.

Similarly, it is crucial to ensure that communities living in areas prone to climate-related disasters be rehabilitated in a participatory manner, with the leadership of the affected communities involved in decision-making processes. Low-cost, innovative local solutions are necessary to target climate change effects such as urban heat and flooding. For example, in Ahmedabad, India, women from informal settlements were empowered to advocate for the specific needs of slum communities and help create viable solutions. As part of the programme, women painted their roofs with cost-effective white solar-reflective paint, reducing their indoor temperatures and shielding themselves and their families from the scorching summer heat.

Access to mobility and public services is also essential to ensure that all citizens can enjoy the right to their cities. It is encouraging to note that climate-friendliness and mobility go hand in hand for millions of deprived urban communities in the form of transportation options such as public transit, bicycling, and pedestrian infrastructure. In urban areas of the Global South, most working people use public transport, bicycles, or walking as part of their daily commute. To incentivize such activities, the cities of the Global South need to invest in affordable public transit and reliable bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure.

Curitiba in Brazil is renowned for its integrated transportation system, green spaces, and social inclusion policies. It was the first city to develop bus rapid transit (BRT) in 1974, providing a cost-effective urban rapid transit solution which has been replicated in many cities across the globe. In 2012, the city also began integrating the BRT system with a bicycle network; currently, more than 80 percent of commuters use the service daily. Suburban railway networks in India, especially in Mumbai, Kolkata, and Chennai, ensure that urban mobility extends to suburban areas. While these rail systems provide a cheap and ecologically sustainable way to travel between the core and the suburbs, they also provide vendor compartments that allow passengers to carry on their bicycles, which they then use in the city for last-mile connectivity. Prioritizing investments in such services is vital to ensuring just, green transitions in urban mobility.

Urban climate resilience also necessitates context-specific infrastructure solutions that address a city’s or community’s vulnerabilities. Vernacular architectural styles, prevalent before modern climate-controlled buildings, should be used to ensure passive cooling strategies, energy efficiency, natural ventilation, and thermal insulation. Nature-based solutions and green infrastructure interventions that enhance natural resilience, such as green roofs, urban forests, rain gardens, wetlands, permeable surfaces, and natural drainage systems, must be prioritized. These solutions help mitigate climate impacts, reduce flood risks, improve air quality, and enhance biodiversity.

Equally essential are sustainable urban planning practices, including compact and mixed-use development, green infrastructure, and protection of urban commons. While investing in green technologies, renewable energy sources, and circular economy principles can contribute to environmental resilience and biodiversity conservation within urban areas, urban planning processes and structures need to be democratised. Vulnerable sections of the urban population need to be involved in these processes through effective urban local governance.

The East Kolkata Wetlands, globally recognized as an exemplary multi-use wetland model, showcases resource recovery systems devised by local communities over generations. In India, these systems have spared Kolkata from the expenses associated with constructing and maintaining wastewater treatment facilities. The wetland serves as an urban facility for wastewater treatment and leverages the treated water for pisciculture and agriculture, efficiently recovering nutrients in the process. The wetlands span approximately 4,000 hectares and feature fish ponds whose biochemical reactions are mostly facilitated by solar energy. This integrated approach yields around 150 tons of fresh vegetables daily and sustains an annual production of approximately 10,500 tons of table fish. Notably, this supports the livelihoods of about 50,000 individuals, directly and indirectly. The fish ponds are primarily managed through worker cooperatives, some of which are organized legal associations. The East Kolkata Wetlands also act as a carbon sink. Research suggests that the wetlands sequester as much as 60 percent of the carbon in wastewater. (Ghosh, 2018).

Economic resilience is another critical dimension of a just urban transition. Cities must promote diverse and inclusive economies that provide decent work, fair wages, and social protections for workers, especially those in the informal sector. Growth in corporate profits accompanied by wage stagnation and little labour absorption shows that we need more significant state intervention to promote economic resilience. This involves investing in green jobs, skills development, vocational training, and small-scale enterprises contributing to economic growth, innovation, and social mobility. Supporting local businesses, cooperatives, and social enterprises strengthens community resilience and reduces dependency on external resources. The state must also build an enabling atmosphere for labour unions to better intervene through collective bargaining to ensure fair wages.

It is also imperative to recognize specific categories of informal workers, such as those concerned with waste collection and those engaged in green jobs, and compensate them for their efforts. For example, the Haritha Karma Sena in the southern Indian state of Kerala is an initiative enabling 35,000 women from marginalized communities who provide door-to-door waste-management services to earn significant incomes to support their families. According to the Local Self Government Department of the Government of Kerala, the state has achieved 87 percent of its zero-waste target, while the income of the women workers has more than doubled.

While promoting green jobs and investing in a circular economy is one aspect of just urban transitions, to ensure climate justice, it is also essential to compensate workers and protect them from climate-induced loss and damage. Heatwaves and other erratic climate events impact the health and livelihood of informal workers, who work prolonged hours under the sun and do not get immediate support or compensation in unexpected or emergency circumstances. A World Bank report suggests that by 2030, India alone may account for 34 million of the projected 80 million global job losses from heat-stress-associated productivity decline. (World Bank Group, 2022) At the micro level, informal workers need to be protected from such climate-related work loss with essential safety equipment, drinking water, shade, regular breaks for those working directly in the sun, and cool work sites for those working indoors. At the macro level, workers must be guaranteed universal social protection to safeguard them from adverse health conditions, temporary loss of livelihood, or reduced income. Moreover, workers who face income loss due to flooding, heatwaves, or other extreme weather events must be compensated.

Achieving a socially and ecologically just urban transition requires a multifaceted approach that integrates social equity, environmental sustainability, inclusive governance, and economic resilience. By embracing these principles and strategies, cities can create more liveable, equitable, and resilient urban environments that benefit all residents and contribute to a more sustainable future for generations to come.

Conclusion

Local solutions are pivotal in combating the climate crisis in Global South cities. Engaging local communities fosters participatory decision-making and empowers residents to address regional climate risks. Green infrastructure, such as green roofs and urban forests, mitigates heat islands and improves air quality. Sustainable transportation, such as public transit and cycling, reduces emissions and congestion. Embracing renewable energy sources like solar and wind power curtails reliance on fossil fuels. Integrated waste management, including recycling and composting, promotes circular economy principles. Climate-smart agriculture and water conservation measures enhance food security and resource resilience. Resilient infrastructure withstands climate-related hazards like floods and storms. Partnerships among local governments, civil society, businesses, and academia amplify resources and scale up climate initiatives. These local solutions create more sustainable, resilient, and liveable cities in the Global South, mitigating climate impacts and fostering a healthier environment for urban residents.

It is also important to note that most of the Global South’s urban centres will expand significantly in the coming decades due to natural growth and push migration from rural areas. Temporary forms of migration are driven in large part by climate factors such as drought frequency and rainfall patterns; climate change-induced stressors will further accentuate such trends. The adverse impacts of climate change, particularly on the agriculture sector and rural economy, are expected to increase rural-to-urban migration in the coming decades. It will therefore be crucial to ensure that policies for urban futures go hand in hand with policies for rural futures.

By implementing comprehensive rural reconstruction or revitalization policies that address economic, social, environmental, and governance dimensions, governments and local communities can create conducive conditions for people to thrive in rural areas, reduce the drivers of forced migration, and foster sustainable rural development and inclusive growth. Strategies must prioritize enhancing rural livelihoods through sustainable agriculture, rural industries, and income-generating activities. To bridge urban-rural development gaps, they must also focus on improving rural infrastructure, including transportation, healthcare, education, and digital connectivity. Land reform policies must ensure secure land tenure and equitable access to land while environmental sustainability efforts promote conservation, climate resilience, and renewable energy adoption in rural areas. Social services and community development initiatives should be taken up to empower rural communities, address social inequalities, and strengthen local governance structures.

Various aspects of city planning and development exacerbate the impacts of climate change and make cities unjust for marginalized groups. Injustice emerges from the distribution of benefits and burdens, which is rooted in historical processes and is a legacy of past policies that excluded the participation of vulnerable communities. Similarly, contemporary economic and political processes that do not appropriately represent marginalized communities lead to skewed policies that further marginalize them in responding to climate impacts. Recent analyses have also stressed that technocratic governance can amplify injustice if not supported by appropriate technical information, data, and analyses. Lastly, local governments’ lack of well-equipped administrative, financial, and technical capacity also accentuates injustices.

To enhance climate justice, we need to:

• Have representation of vulnerable groups in planning climate policies

• Set priorities and frame issues in ways that recognize the needs of vulnerable groups

• Prioritize climate measures that enhance the freedom, agency, and assets of vulnerable groups.

mh/sch